Epigenetic variation in early and late flowering plants of the rubber-producing Russian dandelion Taraxacum koksaghyz provides insights into the regulation of flowering time.

The Russian dandelion (Taraxacum koksaghyz) grows in temperate zones and produces large amounts of poly(cis-1,4-isoprene) in its roots, making it an attractive alternative source of natural rubber. Most T. koksaghyz plants require vernalization to trigger flower development, whereas early flowering varieties that have lost their vernalization dependence are more suitable for breeding and domestication. To provide insight into the regulation of flowering time in T. koksaghyz, we induced epigenetic variation by in vitro cultivation and applied epigenomic and transcriptomic analysis to the resulting early flowering plants and late flowering controls, allowing us to identify differences in methylation patterns and gene expression that correlated with flowering. This led to the identification of candidate genes homologous to vernalization and photoperiodism response genes in other plants, as well as epigenetic modifications that may contribute to the control of flower development. Some of the candidate genes were homologous to known floral regulators, including those that directly or indirectly regulate the major flowering control gene FT. Our atlas of genes can be used as a starting point to investigate mechanisms that control flowering time in T. koksaghyz in greater detail and to develop new breeding varieties that are more suited to domestication.

Overexpression of a pseudo-etiolated-in-light-like protein in Taraxacum koksaghyz leads to a pale green phenotype and enables transcriptome-based network analysis of photomorphogenesis and isoprenoid biosynthesis.

Introduction: Plant growth and greening in response to light require the synthesis of photosynthetic pigments such as chlorophylls and carotenoids, which are derived from isoprenoid precursors. In Arabidopsis, the pseudo-etiolated-in-light phenotype is caused by the overexpression of repressor of photosynthetic genes 2 (RPGE2), which regulates chlorophyll synthesis and photosynthetic genes. Methods: We investigated a homologous protein in the Russian dandelion (Taraxacum koksaghyz) to determine its influence on the rich isoprenoid network in this species, using a combination of in silico analysis, gene overexpression, transcriptomics and metabolic profiling. Results: Homology-based screening revealed a gene designated pseudo-etiolated-in-light-like (TkPEL-like), and in silico analysis identified a light-responsive G-box element in its promoter. TkPEL-like overexpression in dandelion plants and other systems reduced the levels of chlorophylls and carotenoids, but this was ameliorated by the mutation of one or both conserved cysteine residues. Comparative transcriptomics in dandelions overexpressing TkPEL-like showed that genes responsible for the synthesis of isoprenoid precursors and chlorophyll were downregulated, probably explaining the observed pale green leaf phenotype. In contrast, genes responsible for carotenoid synthesis were upregulated, possibly in response to feedback signaling. The evaluation of additional differentially expressed genes revealed interactions between pathways. Discussion: We propose that TkPEL-like negatively regulates chlorophyll- and photosynthesis-related genes in a light-dependent manner, which appears to be conserved across species. Our data will inform future studies addressing the regulation of leaf isoprenoid biosynthesis and photomorphogenesis and could be used in future breeding strategies to optimize selected plant isoprenoid profiles and generate suitable plant-based production platforms.

Natural rubber reduces herbivory and alters the microbiome below ground.

Laticifers are hypothesized to mediate both plant-herbivore and plant-microbe interactions. However, there is little evidence for this dual function. We investigated whether the major constituent of natural rubber, cis-1,4-polyisoprene, a phylogenetically widespread and economically important latex polymer, alters plant resistance and the root microbiome of the Russian dandelion (Taraxacum koksaghyz) under attack of a root herbivore, the larva of the May cockchafer (Melolontha melolontha). Rubber-depleted transgenic plants lost more shoot and root biomass upon herbivory than normal rubber content near-isogenic lines. Melolontha melolontha preferred to feed on artificial diet supplemented with rubber-depleted rather than normal rubber content latex. Likewise, adding purified cis-1,4-polyisoprene in ecologically relevant concentrations to diet deterred larval feeding and reduced larval weight gain. Metagenomics and metabarcoding revealed that abolishing biosynthesis of natural rubber alters the structure but not the diversity of the rhizosphere and root microbiota (ecto- and endophytes) and that these changes depended on M. melolontha damage. However, the assumption that rubber reduces microbial colonization or pathogen load is contradicted by four lines of evidence. Taken together, our data demonstrate that natural rubber biosynthesis reduces herbivory and alters the plant microbiota, which highlights the role of plant-specialized metabolites and secretory structures in shaping multitrophic interactions.

COL2-dependent photoperiodic floral induction in Nicotiana sylvestris seems to be lost in the N. sylvestris × N. tomentosiformis hybrid N. tabacum.

Introduction: Plants are sessile organisms that maximize reproductive success by adapting to their environment. One of the key steps in the reproductive phase of angiosperms is flower development, requiring the perception of multiple endogenous and exogenous signals integrated via a complex regulatory network. Key floral regulators, including the main transcription factor of the photoperiodic pathway (CONSTANS, CO) and the central floral pathway integrator (FLOWERING LOCUS T, FT), are known in many species. Methods and results: We identified several CO-like (COL) proteins in tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum). The NtCOL2a/b proteins in the day-neutral plant N. tabacum were most closely related to Arabidopsis CO. We characterized the diurnal expression profiles of corresponding genes in leaves under short-day (SD) and long-day (LD) conditions and confirmed their expression in phloem companion cells. Furthermore, we analyzed the orthologs of NtCOL2a/b in the maternal LD ancestor (N. sylvestris) and paternal, facultative SD ancestor (N. tomentosiformis) of N. tabacum and found that they were expressed in the same diurnal manner. NtCOL2a/b overexpression or knock-out using the CRISPR/Cas9 system did not support a substantial role for the CO homologs in the control of floral transition in N. tabacum. However, NsCOL2 overexpression induced flowering in N. sylvestris under typically non-inductive SD conditions, correlating with the upregulation of the endogenous NsFTd gene. Discussion: Our results suggest that NsFTd is transcriptionally regulated by NsCOL2 and that this COL2-dependent photoperiodic floral induction seems to be lost in N. tabacum, providing insight into the diverse genetics of photoperiod-dependent flowering in different Nicotiana species.

Guardians of the phloem - forisomes and beyond.

The phloem is a highly specialized vascular tissue that forms a fundamentally important transport and signaling pathway in plants. It is therefore a system worth protecting. The main function of the phloem is to transport the products of photosynthesis throughout the whole plant, but it also transports soluble signaling molecules and propagates electrophysiological signals. The phloem is constantly threatened by mechanical injuries, phloem-sucking pests and parasites, and the spread of pathogens, which has led to the evolution of efficient defense mechanisms. One such mechanism involves structural phloem proteins, which are thought to facilitate sieve element occlusion following injury and to defend the plant against pathogens. In leguminous plants, specialized structural phloem proteins known as forisomes form unique mechanoproteins via sophisticated molecular interaction and assembly mechanisms, thus enabling reversible sieve element occlusion. By understanding the structure and function of forisomes and other structural phloem proteins, we can develop a toolbox for biotechnological applications in material science and medicine. Furthermore, understanding the involvement of structural phloem proteins in plant defense mechanisms will allow phloem engineering as a new strategy for the development of crop varieties that are resistant to pests, pathogens and parasites.

Passivated Impedimetric Sensors for Immobilization-Free Pathogen Detection by Isothermal Amplification and Melt Curve Analysis.

The ongoing SARS-CoV-2 pandemic demonstrates that the capacity of centralized clinical diagnosis laboratories represents a significant limiting factor in the global fight against the newly emerged virus. Scaling up these capacities also requires simple and robust methods for virus diagnosis to be easily driven by untrained personnel in a point-of-care (POC) environment. The use of impedance sensors reduces the complexity and costs of diagnostic instruments and increases automation of diagnosis processes. We present an impedance point-of-care system (IMP-POCS) that uses interdigitated electrodes surrounded by an integrated heating meander to monitor loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) and melt curve analysis (MCA) consecutively in a short time. MCA permits distinguishing false- from true-positive results and significantly raises the validity of pathogen detection. Conclusively, the herein-developed miniaturized total analysis system (µTAS) represents a powerful and promising tool for providing reliable, low-cost alternatives to standard clinical diagnosis.

Amplification of cell signaling and disease resistance by an immunity receptor Ve1Ve2 heterocomplex in plants.

Immunity cell-surface receptors Ve1 and Ve2 protect against fungi of the genus Verticillium causing early dying, a worldwide disease in many crops. Characterization of microbe-associated molecular pattern immunity receptors has advanced our understanding of disease resistance but signal amplification remains elusive. Here, we report that transgenic plants expressing Ve1 and Ve2 together, reduced pathogen titres by a further 90% compared to plants expressing only Ve1 or Ve2. Confocal and immunoprecipitation confirm that the two receptors associate to form heteromeric complexes in the absence of the ligand and positively regulate signaling. Bioassays show that the Ve1Ve2 complex activates race-specific amplified immunity to the pathogen through a rapid burst of reactive oxygen species (ROS). These results indicate a mechanism by which the composition of a cell-surface receptor heterocomplex may be optimized to increase immunity against devastating plant diseases.

The tobacco phosphatidylethanolamine-binding protein NtFT4 increases the lifespan of Drosophila melanogaster by interacting with the proteostasis network.

Proteostasis reflects the well-balanced synthesis, trafficking and degradation of cellular proteins. This is a fundamental aspect of the dynamic cellular proteome, which integrates multiple signaling pathways, but it becomes increasingly error-prone during aging. Phosphatidylethanolamine-binding proteins (PEBPs) are highly conserved regulators of signaling networks and could therefore affect aging-related processes. To test this hypothesis, we expressed PEPBs in a heterologous context to determine their ectopic activity. We found that heterologous expression of the tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) PEBP NtFT4 in Drosophila melanogaster significantly increased the lifespan of adult flies and reduced age-related locomotor decline. Similarly, overexpression of the Drosophila ortholog CG7054 increased longevity, whereas its suppression by RNA interference had the opposite effect. In tobacco, NtFT4 acts as a floral regulator by integrating environmental and intrinsic stimuli to promote the transition to reproductive growth. In Drosophila, NtFT4 engaged distinct targets related to proteostasis, such as HSP26. In older flies, it also prolonged Hsp26 gene expression, which promotes longevity by maintaining protein integrity. In NtFT4-transgenic flies, we identified deregulated genes encoding proteases that may contribute to proteome stability at equilibrium. Our results demonstrate that the expression of NtFT4 influences multiple aspects of the proteome maintenance system via both physical interactions and transcriptional regulation, potentially explaining the aging-related phenotypes we observed.

So similar yet so different: The distinct contributions of extrafascicular and fascicular phloem to transport and exudation in cucumber plants.

Cucurbits have been used as phloem research models for many decades because their exudates can be accessed with ease. However, cucurbit plants possess two distinct phloem systems known as the fascicular phloem (FP) and extrafascicular phloem (EFP). Therefore, the molecular composition and function of certain exudates can be misinterpreted due to their unclear origin. To characterize the anatomy and function of the different phloem systems more clearly, we generated specific antibodies against marker proteins (PP1 homologs) allowing the clear identification of the EFP at the organ, tissue and cellular levels by immunological staining. We also used detailed microscopy to determine common and unique anatomical features of the FP and EFP sieve elements (SEs) in cucumber (Cucumis sativus). The comparison of exudation rates and the dynamic viscosity, density and sugar content of the exudates from plants grown in the light and dark revealed the consistent composition and behavior of the EFP exudate even when photosynthesis was prevented, thus differing from the properties of the FP exudate. Furthermore, the analysis of phloem transport using a fluorescein disodium salt showed only wound-induced exudation of dye from the EFP, indicating the absence of transport in this tissue. Our results show that it is important to distinguish between the EFP and FP in cucurbits, particularly their differing behaviors in response to wounding.

The Ca2+ response of a smart forisome protein is dependent on polymerization.

Forisomes are giant self-assembling mechanoproteins that undergo reversible structural changes in response to Ca2+ and various other stimuli. Artificial forisomes assembled from the monomer MtSEO-F1 can be used as smart biomaterials, but the molecular basis of their functionality is not understood. To determine the role of protein polymerization in forisome activity, we tested the Ca2+ association of MtSEO-F1 dimers (the basic polymerization unit) by circular dichroism spectroscopy and microscale thermophoresis. We found that soluble MtSEO-F1 dimers neither associate with Ca2+ nor undergo structural changes. However, polarization modulation infrared reflection absorption spectroscopy revealed that aggregated MtSEO-F1 dimers and fully-assembled forisomes associate with Ca2+ , allowing the hydration of poorly-hydrated protein areas. A change in the signal profile of complete forisomes indicated that Ca2+ interacts with negatively-charged regions in the protein complexes that only become available during aggregation. We conclude that aggregation is required to establish the Ca2+ response of forisome polymers.

The functionality of plant mechanoproteins (forisomes) is dependent on the dual role of conserved cysteine residues.

Forisomes are giant polyprotein complexes that undergo reversible conformational rearrangements from a spindle-like to a plug-like state in response to Ca2+ or changes in pH. They act as valves in the plant vasculature, and reproduce this function in vitro to regulate flow in microfluidic capillaries controlled by electro-titration. Heterologous expression in yeast or plants allows the large-scale production of tailor-made artificial forisomes for technical applications. Here we investigated the unexpected disintegration of artificial forisomes in response to Ca2+ following the deletion of the M1 motif in the MtSEO-F1 protein or the replacement of all four conserved cysteine residues therein. This phenomenon could be mimicked in wild-type forisomes under reducing conditions by adding a thiol alkylating agent. We propose a model in which reversible changes in forisome structure depend on cysteine residues with ambiguous redox states, allowing the formation of intermolecular disulfide bridges (confirmed by mass spectrometry) as well as noncovalent thiol interactions to connect forisome substructures in the dispersed state. This is facilitated by the projection of the M1 motif from the MtSEO-F1 protein as part of an extended loop. Our findings support the rational engineering of disintegrating forisomes to control the release of peptides or enzymes in microfluidic systems.

The tobacco phosphatidylethanolamine-binding protein NtFT4 simultaneously improves vitality, growth, and protein yield in human cells.

The production of biopharmaceutical proteins in mammalian cells by transient expression or stable transformation requires robust and viable cells. Cell line engineering must therefore balance improved cell growth and viability with high productivity. We tested the ability of nonmammalian phosphatidylethanolamine-binding proteins to enhance cell proliferation in monolayers and suspension cultures. The tobacco protein NtFT4 improved the proliferation of multiple human cell lines. Viable cell density is usually impaired by efficient transfection, but we found that the number of HEK-293TNtFT4 cells at the peak of protein expression was twice that of standard HEK-293T cells, and the antibody yield increased by approximately one-third. Improved growth and viability were observed in different cell lines, in different culture media, and also after transient transfection, suggesting the beneficial trait is consistent and transferable. Additional modifications could boost the productivity of high-density HEK-293TNtFT4 cells even further as we showed for a fluorescent marker protein and recombinant antibody expressed in monolayer cultures. The HEK-293TNtFT4 cell line provides a new human model platform that increases cell proliferation, also achieving a fundamental improvement in recombinant protein expression.

Microscopic and Transcriptomic Analysis of Pollination Processes in Self-Incompatible Taraxacum koksaghyz.

The transition of the Russian dandelion Taraxacum koksaghyz (Asteraceae) to a profitable, alternative crop producing natural rubber and inulin requires the optimization of several agronomic traits, cultivation conditions and harvesting procedures to improve the yield. However, efficient breeding is hindered by the obligatory sexual outcrossing of this species. Several other asters have been investigated to determine the mechanism of self-incompatibility, but the underlying molecular basis remains unclear. We therefore investigated the self-pollination and cross-pollination of two compatible T. koksaghyz varieties (TkMS2 and TkMS3) by microscopy and transcriptomic analysis to shed light on the pollination process. Self-pollination showed typical sporophytic self-incompatibility characteristics, with the rare pollen swelling at the pollen tube apex. In contrast, cross-pollination was characterized by pollen germination and penetration of the stigma by the growing pollen tubes. RNA-Seq was used to profile gene expression in the floret tissue during self-pollination and cross-pollination, and the differentially expressed genes were identified. This revealed three candidates for the early regulation of pollination in T. koksaghyz, which can be used to examine self-incompatibility mechanisms in more detail and to facilitate breeding programs.

Comparative Transcriptome Analysis in Taraxacum koksaghyz to Identify Genes that Determine Root Volume and Root Length.

The Russian dandelion (Taraxacum koksaghyz, family Asteraceae) produces large amounts of natural rubber in the laticifers of its roots. This species has been proposed as an alternative source of natural rubber to augment or partly replace the rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) but domestication would require genetic improvement to increase rubber yields and agronomic optimization to facilitate harvesting and processing. Optimization has focused thus far on the size and shape of the roots, the primary storage organ for natural rubber and inulin. However, the corresponding genetic factors are poorly understood. Here we describe the comparative transcriptomic analysis of root tissues from T. koksaghyz plant sets featuring different root sizes and shapes, aiming to identify differentially expressed genes correlating with root length or root diameter in the upper root and root tip. The resulting datasets revealed multiple candidate genes for each trait and root part, including a glucan endo-1,3-ß-d-glucosidase, an allene oxide synthase 3, and a TIFY10A/JAZ1 homolog. These three genes were tested by qRT-PCR in outdoor-grown plants with diverse root morphology, and the expression of two genes correlated with the appropriate root morphotype, confirming the effectiveness of our method. We evaluated the candidate genes to gain insight into their potential functions in root development. Such candidate genes could be suitable for marker-assisted breeding programs in the future.

Fast, Precise, and Reliable Multiplex Detection of Potato Viruses by Loop-Mediated Isothermal Amplification.

Potato is an important staple food crop in both developed and developing countries. However, potato plants are susceptible to several economically important viruses that reduce yields by up to 50% and affect tuber quality. One of the major threats is corky ringspot, which is a tuber necrosis caused by tobacco rattle virus (TRV). The appearance of corky ringspot symptoms on tubers prior to commercialization results in ≈ 45% of the tubers being downgraded in quality and value, while ≈ 55% are declared unsaleable. To improve current disease management practices, we have developed simple diagnostic methods for the reliable detection of TRV without RNA purification, involving minimalized sample handling (mini), subsequent improved colorimetric loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), and final verification by lateral-flow dipstick (LFD) analysis. Having optimized the mini-LAMP-LFD approach for the sensitive and specific detection of TRV, we confirmed the reliability and robustness of this approach by the simultaneous detection of TRV and other harmful viruses in duplex LAMP reactions. Therefore, our new approach offers breeders, producers, and farmers an inexpensive and efficient new platform for disease management in potato breeding and cultivation.

Combinatorial Metabolic Engineering in Saccharomyces cerevisiae for the Enhanced Production of the FPP-Derived Sesquiterpene Germacrene.

Farnesyl diphosphate (FPP)-derived isoprenoids represent a diverse group of plant secondary metabolites with great economic potential. To enable their efficient production in the heterologous host Saccharomyces cerevisiae, we refined a metabolic engineering strategy using the CRISPR/Cas9 system with the aim of increasing the availability of FPP for downstream reactions. The strategy included the overexpression of mevalonate pathway (MVA) genes, the redirection of metabolic flux towards desired product formation and the knockout of genes responsible for competitive reactions. Following the optimisation of culture conditions, the availability of the improved FPP biosynthesis for downstream reactions was demonstrated by the expression of a germacrene synthase from dandelion. Subsequently, biosynthesis of significant amounts of germacrene-A was observed in the most productive strain compared to the wild type. Thus, the presented strategy is an excellent tool to increase FPP-derived isoprenoid biosynthesis in yeast.

Identification and molecular analysis of interaction sites in the MtSEO-F1 protein involved in forisome assembly.

Forisomes are large mechanoprotein complexes found solely in legumes such as Medicago truncatula. They comprise several "sieve element occlusion by forisome" (SEO-F) subunits, with MtSEO-F1 as the major structure-forming component. SEO-F proteins possess three conserved domains -an N-terminal domain (SEO-NTD), a potential thioredoxin fold, and a C-terminal domain (SEO-CTD)- but structural and biochemical data are scarce and little is known about the contribution of these domains to forisome assembly. To identify key amino acids involved in MtSEO-F1 dimerization and complex formation, we investigated protein-protein interactions by bimolecular fluorescence complementation and the analysis of yeast two-hybrid and random mutagenesis libraries. We identified a SEO-NTD core region as the major dimerization site, with abundant hydrophobic residues and rare charged residues suggesting dimerization is driven by the hydrophobic effect. We also found that ~45% of the full-length MtSEO-F1 sequence must be conserved for higher-order protein assembly, indicating that large interaction surfaces facilitate stable interactions, contributing to the high resilience of forisome bodies. Interestingly, the removal of 62 amino acids from the C-terminus did not disrupt forisome assembly. This is the first study unraveling interaction sites and mechanisms within the MtSEO-F1 protein at the level of dimerization and complex formation.

Comparative proteome and metabolome analyses of latex-exuding and non-exuding Taraxacum koksaghyz roots provide insights into laticifer biology.

Taraxacum koksaghyz has been identified as one of the most promising alternative rubber crops. Its high-quality rubber is produced in the latex of laticifers, a specialized cell type that is organized in a network of elongated tubules throughout the entire plant body. In order to gain insights into the physiological role(s) of latex and hence laticifer biology, we examine the effects of barnase-induced latex RNA degradation on the metabolite and protein compositions in the roots. We established high-quality datasets that enabled precise discrimination between cellular and physiological processes in laticifers and non-laticifer cell types of roots at different vegetative stages. We identified numerous latex-specific proteins, including a perilipin-like protein that has not been studied in plants yet. The barnase-expressing plants revealed a phenotype that did not exude latex, which may provide a valuable genetic basis for future studies of plant-environment interactions concerning latex and also help to clarify the evolution and arbitrary distribution of latex throughout the plant kingdom. The overview of temporal changes in composition and protein abundance provided by our data opens the way for a deeper understanding of the molecular interactions, reactions, and network relationships that underlie the different metabolic pathways in the roots of this potential rubber crop.